Alexander the Great

331 BCE — Near East, Macedon

Today: From Greece to Egypt to India (died in Babylon, Iraq)

In just over a decade, Alexander of Macedon conquered the entire Persian Empire and pushed to the edge of India, never losing a battle, before dying of fever at thirty-two with no plan for who would follow. His generals promptly tore the empire apart. But the Greek culture he scattered from Egypt to Afghanistan — the Hellenistic world — fused with local traditions and outlived him by centuries, making Greek the common tongue of the eastern Mediterranean. He is the archetype of the conqueror whose reach vastly exceeds his grip: brilliant at winning, fatally unready to hold.

Worth knowing: Asked on his deathbed who should inherit his empire, Alexander reportedly answered 'to the strongest' — and his generals spent the next forty years proving him right, hacking it into warring kingdoms.

Pattern: Imperial overstretch — A state's commitments outrun the resources and logistics needed to hold them; the margin fails first.

Entry 55 of 240 in Precedent, a walk through the whole human story in order.